Introduction

Until the 1950's, Ramallah District depended upon rainfall collection cisterns and small local springs for its water supply. However, the growth in population and the influx of thousands of refugees from the nearby cities and villages, have multiplied the demand on drinking water. The existing infrastructure could not provide the needed water, so the municipalities of Ramallah and Al-Bireh and the municipal council of the Arab sector of Jerusalem established the Ramallah and Al-Bireh Water Company. This company expanded the water supply by drawing water from the E'in Fara springs northeast of Jerusalem and from E'in Qinya springs. Even after these two projects, the water supply could not meet the domestic water needs. In 1963, the Jordanian government concluded an agreement with the International Development Agency (IDA) to construct new drinking water projects in Jordan. One of these projects was the E'in Samia Water Project designed to supplement the Ramallah District with drinking water supply. Also, the IDA agreed with the Jordanian Government to establish the Jerusalem Water Undertaking in 1966 (JWU, 1991). Since that time, the Jerusalem Water Undertaking (JWU) is responsible for administrating water sources and providing domestic water for most of the population in the Ramallah District and some villages in Jerusalem District.

Hydrogeological Status

Groundwater Aquifer Systems

The Ramallah District overlies two main aquifer systems:

• Lower Cenomanian Aquifer System

  The geologic formations representing this aquifer system are the Lower and Upper Beit Kahil. Lower Beit Kahil constitutes the lower part of the Lower Cenomanian that is composed of gray marly and dolomitic limestone with some joints forming an aquitard (Rofe & Raffety, 1963). Upper Beit Kahil constitutes the upper part of the Lower Cenomanian and consists of dolomitic, chalky, and marly limestone with karstification and well-jointed features forming a good aquifer confined by the overlying Yatta aquitard (Rofe & Raffety, 1965). The E'in-Samia wells No. 3 and No. 4 tap this aquifer system.

   

• Upper Cenomanian Aquifer System

  The geologic formation comprising this aquifer system is the Hebron formation, and is composed of limestone and dolomitic limestone with chalky bands and chert nodules. Karsts and joints give this formation excellent aquiferous characteristics (Rofe & Raffety, 1963). Figure 5.1 shows the groundwater basins and the exposed aquifers in the West Bank.

   

Figure 5.1 groundwater basins

 

Groundwater Basins

Groundwater basins in the Ramallah District are divided as follows:

1. The western groundwater basin (Auja Tamaseeh sub-basin): This basin underlies approximately 65% of the Ramallah District and its water flows towards the west. Shebtin wells tap this basin.
2. The eastern groundwater basin: This basin underlies the eastern part of the Ramallah District (35%). Its water flows towards the east and southeast. A large part of the eastern area of the Ramallah District is underlain by the Jerusalem-Ramallah sub-basin.

Sources of Water

Table 5.1 outlines in details the water sources in the Ramallah District and Figure 5.2 shows the location map of these sources. These water sources could be divided as follows:

Groundwater Wells

The groundwater wells, supplying domestic water to the people in the Ramallah District, are controlled by the Jerusalem Water undertaking (JWU), Mekorot and Jerusalem Municipality. Israeli companies are also controlling other groundwater wells in the Ramallah District directed to provide the Israeli settlers living in the West Bank with domestic water.

Wells owned by the Jerusalem Water Undertaking(JWU)

The Jerusalem Water Undertaking (JWU) owns five wells at E'in-Samia area to the east of Ramallah city. These wells are located to the east of the regional groundwater shed, tapping the eastern basin aquifer. They contribute to only one third of the current water supply in the district. Basic information about E'in-Samia wells are shown in Table 5.1. Well No. 1 is a seasonal well depending on the annual rainfall, while well No.2 is used mainly for irrigation purposes. Well No.2a is a new well, constructed as an alternative for well No.2 at the same location and expected to operate soon at a pumping rate of 300 m³/hr. These wells (E'in-Samia wells No.1, No.2, and No.2a) tap the Upper Cenomanian aquifer system. Recently, the E'in Samia well No.3 was equipped with a higher yield pump to increase its capacity. The well is pumping at its new capacity since December, 1995. Wells No.3 and No.4 tap the Lower Cenomanian aquifer system. The JWU had constructed a well at E'in Sinya close to Jifna village. Drilling failed to tap any aquifer and stopped at a depth of 500m. They are planning to construct a new well at E'in Samia (No.6) that will be funded by the German Government through GTZ.

Israeli sources

A large quantity of water is purchased from Israeli sources and from Jerusalem Municipality to supplement the low water production of the E'in-Samia wells. The Israeli water company, Mekorot, controls over Shebtin wells No.4 and No.5 in the Ramallah District. These wells located to the west of the groundwater shed and tap the Upper Cenomanian aquifer system.

Mekorot is also responsible for supplying domestic water to 22 villages and 6 Israeli Settlements within Ramallah District through the West Bank Water Department (WBWD). The total water supply from Mekorot sources is about 6.5 MCM/yr (Mekorot, 1995). Approximately 4.3 MCM/yr were purchased from Mekorot and distributed by JWU, while 2.2 MCM/yr were distributed by WBWD.

Israeli controlled Wells

There are nine other Israeli wells that are controlled by Israel in the Ramallah District. These tap the western groundwater basin and are connected with the Israeli national carrier to exclusively serve the Israelis. Table 5.1 shows their names and basic details.

A comparison between well depth and depth to water of the Palestinian wells and Israeli wells is shown in Figure 5.3. Clearly, the depths for Israeli wells are much deeper than those of the Palestinians which means that the Israeli wells tap multi aquifer and so abstracting more water.

Figure 5.3 Well depth and depth to water table for different groundwater wells in Ramallah District.

Springs

Springs are a major source of domestic water for many villages in the West Bank. Villages not connected to municipal water are depending on spring water for their living. In the Ramallah District, there are 122 minor springs with an average discharge little exceeding 0.01 liters/sec. Some of these springs are used for domestic and low scale irrigation purposes and many of them are not utilized. The water of these springs flows in open channels causing water losses by evaporation and percolation through the ground to be very high. However, the total average annual discharge (1970-1994) of the seven major springs in the district is estimated to be 3.83 MCM, about 90% of the total discharge of all springs in the Ramallah District (Nuseibeh & Nasser Eddin, 1995). The basic details of these seven major springs are shown in Table 5.1. Figures 5.4-5.7 show the annual discharge variation with rainfall of the main springs in the Ramallah District from 1982 to 1994 (Nuseibeh & Nasser Eddin, 1995).

Figure 5.4: Variation in discharge of Ajjul and Harrasheh springs relative to rainfall, from 1982/83 to 1993/94.

Figure 5.5: Variation in discharge of Delbeh & Legtan and Dilba springs relative to rainfall from 1982/93 to 1993/94.

Figure 5.6: Variation in discharge of Arik Fouqa and Arik Tahta springs relative to rainfall from 1982/93 to 1993/94.

Figure 5.7: Variation in discharge of Zarqa spring relative to rainfall from 1982/93 to 1993/94.

Rainwater harvesting

Cisterns are widely used as a supplementary source of water supply in the Ramallah District. Most Palestinians use the rooftops of their houses as a catchment area to collect rainwater during winter time. This water is stored in cisterns of different volumes constructed underneath or next to the houses. The average capacity of the existing cisterns is 70 m³. This source of water is very important to Palestinians all over the West Bank but more important to those Palestinians who are not connected to a water distribution system and where there is a shortage of water during the summer.

Photo 1: Mismanagement of E'in Jariout Spring in Bitunia.

Water Quality

Water is tested periodically by the JWU and the WBWD to insure the quality of the water supply. The chemical analysis is conducted at the Center of Environmental and Occupational Health Science at Bir Zeit University. Results of chemical and physical analysis indicate that the water fits within the parameters for drinking water.

Physical Water Quality Tests

These tests include measurements of the electrical conductivity (EC), hydrogen activity product (pH), total dissolved solids (TDS), and turbidity. Results are available for E'in Samia wells No.1, No.2, and No.3, Shua'fat connection and Ramallah station from five samples taken between 1991-1995. Table 5.2 shows the variation over time in electrical conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solids (TDS) for the E'in Samia wells, Shua'fat connection and Ramallah station.

Chemical Water Quality Tests

These tests include routine chemical analysis of major cations and anions for E'in Samia wells and partial chemical analysis for chloride and nitrates in the Israeli wells and the major springs in the Ramallah District (Tables 5.2 and 5.3). Table 5.2 shows the variation over time of the major cations and anions of water in wells No.1, No.2, and No.3, Shua'fat connection and Ramallah station.

Diagrams and contour maps are used to model the hydrochemical data to identify the quality of the groundwater. The Wilcox diagram (1955) is used to classify water for irrigation purposes depending on the conductivity (EC) and the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values. The Wilcox diagram for water sources in the Ramallah District, E'in Samia wells No.1, No.2, No.3, and No.4 as well as the water purchased from Mekorot at the connection sites, is shown in Figure 5.8. The water of the E'in Samia wells has medium salinity hazard and low sodium hazard and is therefore suitable for irrigation. The external water sources received at Ramallah and Shua'fat connection sites have greater values of EC as they are located in the region of high salinity and low sodium hazard.

Figure 5.8

The Piper Diagram (Figure 5.9) identifies types of the water sources in the Ramallah District. The figure shows that all water sources are earth alkaline with prevailing bicarbonate except that of E'in Samia well No.2 and the water purchased from Mekorot. These two sources have earth alkaline water with prevailing bicarbonate and increased portion of alkalis.

Figure 5.9

Figure 5.10 shows Stiff Diagram which classifies the water of E'in Samia wells No.1, No.3, and No.4 as calcium-bicarbonate, while that of E'in Samia well No.2 as sodium-bicarbonate.

Fig (5.10): Stiff diagram

Contour maps of the chloride and nitrate levels in the Ramallah District are shown in Figures 5.11 and 5.12. Although the groundwater quality of E'in Samia Wells is better than that purchased from external sources (Mekorot & Jerusalem Municipality), the groundwater from all sources (E'in Samia domestic wells, that purchased from Mekorot, and the water from the major springs) in the Ramallah District meets the general standards for drinking water. This water does not need any treatment before being used.

Groundwater Flow Pattern

Groundwater flows mainly in two directions in the Ramallah District, to the east in the areas underlain by the eastern groundwater basin such as E'in Samia wells field, and to the west in the areas underlain by the western groundwater basin (Mekorot wells).

The groundwater level contour map shows the groundwater flow and three zones of extensive pumping (Figure 5.13):

Fig(5.13): The groundwater level contour map

1. The E'in Samia wells field with groundwater flow direction to the east and the contours representing equipotential lines become closer as pumping occurred.
2. Shebtin wells and the two other Israeli wells located in the northwestern part of Ramallah District.
3. The Israeli wells located at the Latroun in the southwestern part of Ramallah District near the no-man land area. These wells tap the western aquifer system and their natural flow is to the west. The extensive pumping from these wells has caused the water to reverse its direction towards the southeast. Pumping in these wells should be reduced to avoid further damage of the groundwater system.

Water Supply & Demand

Water distribution in the Ramallah District is the responsibility of the Jerusalem Water Undertaking (JWU) and the West Bank Water Department (WBWD).

Jerusalem Water Undertaking (JWU)

The JWU distributes water to approximately 200,000 people including Ramallah and Al-Bireh cities, 44 villages in the Ramallah and Jerusalem Districts and 10,000 people from the Israeli military forces. Figure 5.14 shows the existing water distribution network controlled by the JWU. In 1994, approximately 66.3% (5.0 MCM) of the total water distributed (7.5 MCM) was purchased from Mekorot and the Jerusalem Municipality. The rest (2.5 MCM) of the distributed water was pumped from the E'in Samia wells.

West Bank Water Department (WBWD)

Shebtin Wells No. 4 and 5, controlled by Mekorot, are used to provide water for domestic purposes through the West Bank Water Department. These wells also serve 6 Israeli settlements and 22 Palestinian villages in the Ramallah District that are not connected to the water distribution network of the JWU.

The villages served by the WBWD constitutes 18% of the Ramallah District's population. Approximately 2.2 MCM of water are distributed by Mekorot through the WBWD. The total water quantity received from Mekorot either purchased and distributed by the JWU or directly distributed through the WBWD is 6.5 MCM (Mekorot, 1995). Table 5.4 shows the external water sources and the quantities of water purchased in the 1994.

Figure 5.14 Water distribution network administered by the JWU

The water quantity consumed in 1994 can be summarized as follows:

• 7,244,678 m³ were purchased from Israel sources and distributed by both JWU and WBWD.
• 2,548,567 m³ were produced from E'in Samia wells.
• Additional unaccounted water quantities were consumed by some local communities of Ramallah District from cisterns and local springs.

In comparison, the Israelis pump 9,836,400 m³ (Israeli Hydrological Services, 1995) from eight of their nine wells in the Ramallah area. This quantity equals the total water consumed by Palestinians in the Ramallah District in 1994, such over-pumping makes the water status very critical there.

Table 5.5 shows the water supply & demand projection for the years 2000, 2010, 2020 depending on 1990 baseline data consumption taking into consideration that the growth rate of population in the years 2000, 2010, and 2020 are 3.1%, 2.4%, and 1.5%, respectively.

In the "Oslo II" agreement and for the interim period, It is agreed that the Israelis should provide the Palestinians in Ramallah District with an additional amount of 0.5 MCM/yr. The Palestinian Authority will be responsible of developing the Eastern Aquifer System to provide the districts of Hebron, Bethlehem and Ramallah with 17 MCM/yr additional water supply.

Water Costs & Prices

The cost of water distributed by JWU is dependent upon the source.

1. Water purchased from Mekorot costs 0.64 $/m³.
2. Water purchased from the Jerusalem Municipality costs 0.69 $/m³.
3. Water produced from E'in Samia wells costs 0.47 $/m^3.

JWU currently implements a tariff with a unit price increasing with the increase in consumption. Table 5.6 shows the tariff on solid water quantities.

Distribution Network

The original network was laid by Ramallah/Al-Bireh water company in the early fifties. Unfortunately, the pipes used did not meet the standard specifications. Generally, second hand pipes of only two inches in diameter were used. The network mostly constructed for individual consumers and not for complete streets or areas. The result of this lack of standards for network construction, is a complicated network that is extremely difficult and costly to maintain.

The present network in the main cities and villages consists of pipes connected in rings as a circulation system. By the end of 1995, the total length of the distribution network including all the different size of pipes was 749,426 meters. Table 5.7 shows the lengths and pipe sizes of pipes used in the network at the end of 1994 and 1995 (JWU, 1995).

Water losses

Water losses were estimated by the JWU in 1994 at approximately 25%. The total water distributed by JWU was about 7,555,811 m³ whereas the sold water was 5,667,466 m³ which means a loss of approximately 1,888,345 m³ (JWU, 1995). The losses occurred through leaks in the main pipelines, the distribution network and the meters. It is also known that some water is taken illegally. No information is available from the WBWD about water losses in the network.

Reservoirs

There are 11 reservoirs in the Ramallah District under the jurisdiction of JWU. Taweel No.1 and Taweel No. 2 reservoirs are the main ones. Table 5.8 gives the information about each reservoir.

Photo 2: E'in Samia reservoir

Conclusions and Recommendations

• The water status in the Ramallah District is very critical as the demand for water is high and expected to increase rapidly in the future. Ramallah and Al-Bireh cities are considered the commercial center for Palestinians, and therefore the demand on water will increase as investors choose to live and invest in Ramallah.

• Water shares between Israel and Palestine should be reexamined as Israel pumps a great deal of water from Ramallah District. Their discharge is equal to the water consumed by the whole population in the District. This water is needed for development of the Palestinian agriculture, industry, economy and society.

• Rehabilitating and building water collection and storage units to collect excess water, to regulate flow, facilitate spring use, and prevent waste of water.

• Pumping of the Israeli Wells located at the Latroun in the southwestern part of Ramallah District near the no-man's land area, should be reduced to avoid further damage of the ground water system.