1- Groundwater Aquifer Systems

According to the Jordanian nomenclature (Rofe & Raffety, 1963), there are several aquifer systems in the district, mainly:

1.1 - Lower Cenomanian Aquifer System:

This aquifer system is composed of the Lower Ajlun series and overlaid by the Upper Ajlun series (Upper Middle Cenomanian-Turonian). The latter has much more pure Dolomitic limestone in its sequence. The lower part of the Upper Ajlun series constitutes the major aquifer in the region. The chalky limestone and dolomite are overlaid by fine well developed calcareous limestone, forming an excellent aquifer and building stone. This aquifer system is composed of the following geologic formations:

1. Lower Beit Kahil Formation (Early Lower Cenomanian)
2. Upper Beit Kahil Formation (Late Lower Cenomanian)
3. Yatta Formation (Lower Middle Cenomanian)

The Beit Kahil and Yatta formations are believed to jointly form a major Aquiclude. The presence of limestone layers within these formations made it possible for springs to form. While the wells of many Israeli settlements are tapping this aquifer for domestic and agricultural reasons, Palestinians are denied access to it.

1.2 - Upper Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer System:

This aquifer system is composed of the Upper Ajlun Series and consists of the following geologic formations:

1. Hebron Formation (Upper Middle Cenomanian Aquifer)
2. Bethlehem Formation (Upper Cenomanian Aquifer
3. Jerusalem Formation (Upper Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer)

1.3 - Tertiary Aquifer System:

This system is composed of the Beida Formation (Neogene Aquifer) which is composed of conglomerate lenses, limestone, marl and clay with Lower Tertiary age. Geomorphologically, the Beida Formation can be easily recognized by its soft rounded features, light colors and encrusted surface. The lenses of conglomerates and the margins of the formation have good aquiferous characteristics. Intercalated marls act as confining Aquiclude.

1.4 - Quaternary Aquifer System:

This aquifer system is composed of the three formations, Lisan, Alluvial and Gravel fans:

1. Lisan Formation (Pleistocene Aquifer) extends along the Jordan Rift Valley and near Jericho. It is lithologically composed of valved marl consisting of thin layers of gypsum and limestone and forming light and dark alternating bands.
2. Alluvial and gravel fans (Holocene) distributed in the Jordan Valley. They cover the flood plains of the Jordan River and are strongly related to the faulted areas which are subjected to erosion. The alluvium is, generally, unconsolidated in the Rift Valley where it is formed of laminated marls with occasional sands. Gravel fans are widely distributed in the Jordan valley and have the capability of transferring groundwater from the limestone aquifers. The coarse marginal faces of Beida, Lisan, and alluvium formations form good aquifers.

The Palestinian wells in the Jericho district tap the Upper Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer system and the Neogene and Pleistocene shallow aquifer systems. However, the water of these wells is limited in quantity and deteriorated in quality.

2- Groundwater Basins:

The general groundwater flow direction in this system is to the east and southeast towards the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea. Figure 4.1 shows the groundwater basins and the exposed aquifers in the Jericho district with respect to other basins and aquifers in the West Bank. The Jericho district overlies two sub-basins of the Eastern Aquifer System. These two sub-basins are:

Figure 4.1

1. Auja-Fasayel Sub-basin which drains the Neogene/Pleistocene and Upper Cenomanian aquifers and flows towards the southeast direction.
2. Ramallah-Jerusalem Sub-basin which drains the Neogene and Pleistocene, Lower Cenomanian and Upper Cenomanian aquifers and flows towards the east and southeast direction.

Groundwater Sources and Consumption

1- Groundwater Wells

There are 63 irrigation wells in the Jericho district divided according to control and management into: 48 private Wells owned by Palestinians, and 15 cooperative association wells owned by the Arab Development Society (ADS), where seven of them are currently in operation. The annual discharge and pumpage from springs and wells in the Jericho district are shown in table 4.1 below.

2- Springs

There are four main spring systems in the Jericho district emerging from the eastern groundwater basin underlying the Jericho area. The total annual discharge of these springs reached 62.31 MCM in 1992, as is shown in table 4.1.

2.1 Wadi Al-Qilt Spring System:

The total average annual discharge of this system is about 5 MCM (IPCRI, 1993). Figure 4.2 shows the discharge variation of the spring system with rainfall during the period of 1982/83 until 1993/94 (WBWD, 1994). Wadi Al-Qilt is fed from three main springs Ein Fara, Ein Fawwar and Ein Al-Qilt (Rofe & Raffety, 1963 ; Scarpa, 1994).

Figure 4.2: Discharge variation of Wadi Al-Qilt Spring System with rainfall during the period of 1982/83 until 1993/94

(WBWD,1994).

• Ein Fara is a seasonal spring which emerges upstream at an elevation of 325 m above sea level through the floor of the wadi.
• Ein Fawwar is a seasonal spring which emerges 4 km downstream at an elevation of 80 m above sea level with an average discharge of about 30,000-100,000 CM/day. Both Fara and Fawwar springs drain from the Quaternary Alluvium Aquifers.
• Ein Al-Qilt emerges 2.5 km downstream of Ein Fawwar at an elevation of 10 m above sea level. Its flow rate is almost constant with a little variation from winter to summer. It has a catchment area of about 115 km2 and an average annual rainfall of 550 mm, of which about 20% recharges the groundwater Upper Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer, appearing as a normal fissure flow at about the Bethlehem-Jerusalem Formation interface.

2.2 Ein Al-Sultan Spring System:

It is located to the east of Wadi Al-Qilt in Jericho city and related to the Upper Cenomanian-Turonian Aquifer. Its annual flow discharge of about 4 MCM (ARIJ, 1995). used to fulfill the municipal and agricultural needs of the Jericho population. Figure 4.3 shows the discharge variation of Ein Al-Sultan with rainfall during the period of 1982/83- until 1993/94 (WBWD, 1994).

Figure 4.3 Discharge variation of Ein Al-Sultan period of 1982/83 until 1993/94

(WBWD, 1994).

2.3 Dyouk Spring System:

This system is composed of three springs; Dyouk, Nuwe'ma, and Shosah emerging on a fault parallel to the Rift fault. They drain the Pleistocene Lisan Formation and are fed from the Cenomanian Ajlun aquifers (Davidson & Hirzallah, 1966). Figure 4.4 shows the discharge variation of the spring system with rainfall during the period of 1982/83 until 1993/94 (WBWD, 1994).

Figure 4.4 Discharge variation of Dyouk Spring the period of 1982/83 until 1993/94

(WBWD, 1994).

2.4 Al-Auja Spring System:

Ein Al-Auja has a catchment area of 170 km2 and receives an average rainfall of about 500 mm annually. The average annual discharge of this system is about 10 MCM (IPCRI, 1993) which drains the Upper Cenomanian-Turonian aquifer (Rosenthal & Kronfeld, 1982). Its water is used for irrigation purposes and its discharge is affected by rainfall variation. Figure 4.5 shows the discharge variation of the spring with rainfall during the period of 1982/1983 until 1993/1994 (WBWD,1994).

Figure 4.5 Discharge variation of Al-Auja Spring System with rainfall during the period of 1982/83 until 1993/94

(WBWD, 1994).

Photo 2: Al-Auja Spring

Groundwater Quality

ARIJ conducted water samplings in March, 1995 for forty two groundwater wells and seven major springs in the Jericho district to define the groundwater quality. The chemical analysis of the water samples was conducted at the laboratories of Abu Dies University to determine the major cations and anions in the water samples. On site physical water quality measurements were also conducted. ýTable 4.2 shows the descriptive statistical analysis of the hydrochemical data obtained from the chemical analysis of the seven major springs in the Jericho district.

All springs in the Jericho district are used for irrigation except Ein Al-Sultan which is used for both domestic and irrigation purposes. In order to identify water quality for irrigation, electrical conductivity (EC), the water salinity indicator, and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were used. Wilcox (1955) classified water quality for irrigation using EC and SAR in the form of a diagram called Wilcox diagram. Figure 4.6a shows Wilcox diagram which classifies spring water quality for irrigation in Jericho district. According to Wilcox (1955), the EC for spring water which ranges from 369 and 446 µS/cm with a mean of 408.7 µS/cm, indicates good quality water for irrigation purposes.

SAR values for the analyzed water samples ranges from 0.1 into 1.8. They are calculated according to the following formula:

In the diagram 4.6a spring water is located in the region of medium salinity hazard and low sodium hazard i.e. it is suitable for irrigation purposes.

Figure 4.6a* Wilcox diagram of springs in the Jericho district.

* This diagram are constructed by Groundwater for Windows (GWW) software. The wells and springs are identified by numbers and characters

Groundwater wells in the Jericho district are used primarily for irrigation purposes. The salinity indicator (EC) ranges from 369 into 2280 µS/cm with an average of 994 µS/cm which is permissible, according to Wilcox classification (1955). Table 4.3 shows the ranges of results of hydrochemical analysis of the groundwater wells in the Jericho district.

The sodium hazard indicated by sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ranges from 0.4 into 11.8 with an average of 4.14. Figure 4.6b shows Wilcox diagram which classifies water quality of groundwater wells for irrigation in Jericho district. In the diagram water is located in the region of medium to high salinity hazard and low to medium sodium hazard i.e. groundwater quality of wells is unsuitable for irrigating almost all kinds of crops because of its high salinity.

Figure 4.6b*: Wilcox diagrams of wells in the Jericho district.

* This diagram are constructed by Groundwater for Windows (GWW) software. The wells and springs are identified by numbers and characters

Contour maps are used in this profile to represent the hydrochemical data for groundwater, including both wells and springs, in the Jericho district. Figure 4.7 shows a contour map representing the distribution of electrical conductivity (EC) in groundwater in different areas of the Jericho district. It is clearly shown that the electrical conductivity increases towards the Dead Sea and Jordan valley, which may be attributed to sea water intrusion and scarcity of rainfall.

Figure 4.7: Electrical Conductivity (EC) distribution in the Jericho district's groundwater

Figure 4.8 shows a contour map representing the distribution of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) in the groundwater of the Jericho district. SAR increases towards the Dead Sea and the Jordan valley, which may be attributed, in addition to sea water intrusion, to Halite and Evaporites deposits adjacent to the Jordan valley. Mixing with deep fossil groundwater may be the cause for higher values of SAR and other constituents in the water.

Figure 4.8: Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) distribution in the Jericho district's groundwater

Figure 4.9 shows a contour map representing the distribution of Nitrates (NO3-) in the Jericho district groundwater. The high values of Nitrates may have resulted from irrigation activities and intensive usage of fertilizers in the district. Each crop planted in the area has a specific sensitivity for the different water quality indicators, so, water quality is the limiting factor of the cropping pattern in the Jericho district.

Figure 4.9: Nitrates distribution groundwater.

Surface Water Resources

Surface water in the Jericho district can be classified into flood water and the Jordan River water.

1- Flood Water

Flood water is very limited due to limited rainfall in the area. Flood water in the Jericho district originates outside the district from the eastern catchment of Jerusalem and Ramallah areas. Exact measurement of flood water quantities is difficult because of the mixing of their water with spring water in the downstream areas of these wadis. Literature has reported discharge of floods in the study area to be about 10.01 MCM/yr ( P.L.O., 1990 ).

2- Jordan River Basin

Background:

The Jordan River is 252 kms long from its source near Banias to the Dead Sea, with a surface catchment area of about 17,665 km2. The headwaters of the Jordan River originate in the southern and western slopes of Mount Hermon (Figure 4.10). The river system is composed of the Hasbani, the Dan and the Banias rivers. They flow south in a deep depression from the northern mountains to Lake Tiberias at approximately 200 meters above mean sea level, finally spilling into the Dead Sea at approximately 400 meters below mean sea level. Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine are all riparians of the Jordan River basin and 80% of the basin is located in Jordan, Israel and Palestine. The natural flow of the river (in the absence of extraction) is estimated to be roughly 1,476 MCM at the entrance to the Dead Sea. This water represents an important component in the water budget to the riparians. The Jordan River's water satisfies around 50% of Israel's and Jordan's demand. For Palestinians, Jordan River is the only permanent source of surface water. It flows along the eastern border of the West Bank from the north to the Dead Sea in the south. During the occupation, the Israeli authorities and the military closure of the areas along the Jordan Valley, have forbidden the Palestinians from their share of the Jordan River's water.

Figure 4.10: Headwater Of The Jordan River

Dispute and previous plans:

The dispute between the riparians on the Jordan's water started since the Zionist Movement launched a political campaign to establish the Jewish State at Palestine. Since that time, many plans had been proposed to divide the water of the Jordan River, but none of the solutions were accepted to all parties. The following section outlines the results of a study presented by ARIJ in 1992 summarizing the plans and events which have taken place since 1922 (Hosh, 1992). "Two important water-related events highlight the British Mandate of Palestine, 1922-1948, the Rutenberg Concession and the Ionides Plan. In 1926, the British High Commissioner granted the Jewish owned Palestine Electricity Corporation, founded by Pinhas Rutenberg, a 70 year concession to utilize the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers' water for generating electricity. The concession denied Arab farmers the right to use the Yarmouk and Jordan Rivers' water upstream of their junction for any

reason, unless permission was granted from the Palestine Electricity Corporation. Permission was never granted.

In 1937, the government of Great Britain assigned M. Ionides, a hydrologist, to serve as the Director of Development for the East Jordan Government. His actual task was solely to conduct a study on the water resources and irrigation potentials of the Jordan Valley basin. This study served as a main reference in the preparation of the proposed United Nations Partition Plan of Palestine.

Published in 1939, the Ionides Plan suggested three recommendations. Firstly, Yarmouk flood waters were to be stored in Lake Tiberias. Secondly, the stored waters in Lake Tiberias plus a small quantity (1.76 CM/sec) of the Yarmouk River water, diverted through the East Ghor canal, were to be used to irrigate 75,000 acres (30,000 hectares) of land east of the Jordan River. And finally, the secured irrigation water of the Jordan River system, estimated at a potential of 742 MCM, were to be used primarily within the Jordan Valley basin.

Since the Jordan and the Yarmouk Rivers were at that time still under the authority of the Palestine Electricity Corporation, the plan was difficult to implement.

Zionist supporters worldwide were not satisfied with the findings and recommendations of Ionides. Their aspiration to utilize the Jordan River Basin for the irrigation of the Negev and the southern parts of Palestine was fulfilled by Walterclay Lowdermilk. Lowdermilk was commissioned by the United States Department of Agriculture to conduct such a study.

Lowdermilk devised a plan calling for the irrigation of the Jordan Valley; the diversion of the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers to create hydroelectric power; the diversion of water from northern Palestine to the Negev desert in the south; and the usage of the Litani River in Lebanon.

In striking contrast to the Ionides plan, Lowdermilk concluded that 1800 MCM of water is available in the Jordan Basin for the purpose of irrigation. A canal was recommended to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Dead Sea. Also, an authority similar to the Tennessee Valley Authority should be formed to assume full control over all activities concerning water resources. Such water management would ideally ensure adequate water resources and job opportunities for 4 million new Jewish immigrants in addition to the 1.8 million Arabs already living in Palestine and East Jordan at that time.

Control over the proposed project should be solely in the hands of Jews, with a limited amount of input allotted to the United Nations. Arabs unable or unwilling to live under such conditions were to be transferred to areas near the Euphrates and the Tigris Valleys.

Lowdermilk's plan and suggestions were enthusiastically embraced by influential Zionists. Technical experts were subsequently contracted to implement and interpret this plan into feasible schemes. James B. Hays was selected for this assignment.

The Hays Plan of 1948 called for half of the Yarmouk River water to be diverted into Lake Tiberias, replacing water diverted from the upper Jordan River, as outlined in the Lowdermilk plan from which Hays worked. Two additional stages were suggested to be implemented in the future, although not stated, they most likely included the diversion of the Litani River water into geographical Palestine in order to be used for Israeli projects.

As a continuation of the Lowdermilk-Hays Plan, the new government of Israel, soon after the War of 1948, began to prepare practical plans for the utilization and control of the area's water resources. A Seven Year Plan, approved publicly in 1953, centered around the diversion of the Jordan River water south toward the Negev desert and establishing a unified and comprehensive water network that would cover all parts of Israel.

In September 1953, the construction of the National Water Carrier began, and thus plans to divert the Jordan River water, south to the Negev, were activated. Diversion originated at the Banat Yacoub Bridge in the demilitarized zone between Israel and Syria. After Syrian objection to the excavation process, and United States' economic sanctions against Israel, a temporary freeze on the work at Banat Yacoub Bridge was announced in October 1953.

During the 1948 war, the Rutenberg electricity generating plant was destroyed by the Jewish army in an attempt to avoid exclusive Arab control over the use of the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers. The war forced a great number of Palestinian refugees to flee and settle in the eastern part of the Jordan Valley. The Jordanian Government and UNRWA (The United Nations Relief and Works Agency) agreed to develop irrigation schemes in the area to assist Palestinian refugees to cultivate the land and resettle. For this purpose, the Jordanian Government commissioned a British consultant, Sir Murdoch MacDonald, to conduct a study on their behalf.

The MacDonald Plan was finalized in 1951. It is considered a compliment to the Ionides Plan. The plan called for Jordan Basin water to be exclusively used for irrigation of both banks of the Jordan River by storing surplus water from the Yarmouk River in Lake Tiberias and constructing canals down both sides of the Valley. Arabs were uneasy with the suggestion of the storage of water in Lake Tiberias, as they were in previous plans.

Therefore, Arabs favored the plan put forth by the American engineer M. E. Bunger. He identified a suitable location for the construction of a water storage dam along the Yarmouk River at the Maqarin area, where three valleys join together. The impounded water would be diverted to another dam at Addassiyah into gravity flow canals along the East Ghor Canal in the Jordan Valley. The plan included two hydroelectric generating plants at the site of the two dams to supply water and electricity to both Jordan and Syria. The Bunger Plan addressed several of Jordan and Syria's needs and intended to resolve, to some extent, the Palestinian refugee problem by increasing the productivity of available agricultural lands in the East Jordan Valley and parts of Syria.

As soon as work began in July 1953, Israel vocalized its concern about increasing Arab control over the area's water resources. Israel objected on the grounds that the original Rutenberg Concession gave it exclusive rights to the Yarmouk River. As a result, pressure was exerted on the United States Government and UNRWA to cease support for the project. To the surprise of the Jordanian Government, work halted soon thereafter and the project was terminated.

In October 1953, the United States prepared the Johnston Plan as an attempt to solve the area's water crisis. The rising tension caused by the Israeli initiation of the National Water Carrier project, encouraged the United States to mediate between the two parties. The plan sought to satisfy the minimum requirements of riparian Arab states, as well as Israel. Eric Johnston implemented a water plan prepared by Charles Main, under the supervision of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Essentially, the Johnston Plan was a combination of the Lowdermilk-Hays and the MacDonald-Bunger Plans. The new plan included water distribution quotas of the Jordan Valley Basin, estimated at 1,213 MCM annually, among the riparian states.

The plan was not well received by either Israel or the Arab States. Consequently, Arabs and Israelis submitted counter proposals for dividing water shares, the Arab Technical Committee and the Cotton Plan, respectively. Table 4 describes the development of Johnston Plan in the years 1953-1955.

Because the available irrigation water in the Jordan River Basin does not exceed a maximum of 1,213 MCM, the Cotton Plan included, within its scope, the Litani River to cover the water shortfall. The Cotton Plan allocated 400 MCM of the Litani's water to Israel and 300 MCM to Lebanon.

The period between October 1953 and July 1955 was a negotiating and bargaining stage over the Jordan River system. By the end of 1955, the Johnston Plan became more favorable to Israel, whose share rose to 450 MCM while Jordan's shares dropped to 720 MCM.

The final form of the Plan, even though it was rejected by Arab States, was employed by the United States as a basis for its future plans in the region. The failure to reach bilateral agreement reinforced each country's inclination to proceed independently.

In 1958, Israel re-initiated the National Water Carrier project but with some technical changes and also the Seven Year Plan was replaced by the Ten Year Plan. The new plan shifted the diversion point to Eshed Kinort, at the north- west corner of Lake Tiberias. The new diversion project was carefully designed in accordance to Israel's water allocation in the Revised Johnston Plan. It also refrained from invalidating its general principles.

Arab reaction to Israel's National Water Carrier was to build dams on tributaries of the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers, thus reducing the water flow to Israel. In 1965, Syria began building dams to divert water from the Banias and Dan Rivers in the Golan Heights. These headwater diversions threatened to deprive Israel of 35% of its water potential from the Upper Jordan. Israel, as a riparian state of the Jordan Basin, considered this action an aggression on its water resources and sent fighter planes to destroy working sites.

Israeli occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights in 1967 and subsequent control over the Jordan's headwaters in the area ended Arab dreams and plans for utilizing the water of the Jordan Basin.

In 1969 Israel bombed the East Ghor Canal in Jordan, keeping it out of order for four years. After secret negotiations between Jordan and Israel in 1969-1970, Israel permitted the repair of the East Ghor Canal while Jordan, in return, reaffirmed its adherence to the Revised Johnston Plan quotas".

Current Situation:

All of the proposed plans neglected the Arab historic rights and were thus rejected. During the past 50 years, the course of this important river has been altered and its headwaters siphoned off, leaving it currently as nothing more than a trickle of sewage. Several projects had altered the character of the river such as:

1. The greatest part of the Yarmouk River is directed to the Eastern Valley canal and the rest is pumped to Lake Tiberias. The Jordanians use 100-120 MCM per year from the Yarmouk River (Moore).
2. The Israeli authorities have Launched the Gilgal project where water of the Jordan River is pumped to the settlements in the Jordan Valley.
3. Mekorot, the Israeli water company, is diverting the Jordan's water before it leaves Lake Tiberias.

Israel is using around 670-715 MCM per year from the water of the river. This includes, local consumption from Tiberias, utilization in the upper Jordan and Huleh Valley and Israeli withdrawals from the Yarmouk River, in addition to the water pumped through the National Carrier Water. On average, 380 MCM per year is pumped from the Tiberias through the National Water Carrier for domestic and agricultural use in the central and southern parts of Israel (Moore).

As the Jordan's water flows south, its quality suffers from constant degradation. By the time it reaches to the Dead Sea, the water is highly saline and loaded with heavy metals. The deterioration of water quality may be due to the upstream utilization by other riparians and the diversion of the salty springs of the Lake Tiberias by the Israeli authorities into the Jordan River. In addition to the agricultural return flows and the disposal of untreated wastewater by Israeli settlements in the Jordan Valley.

Palestinians through the current negotiations must fight to recover their rights to control and utilize their water from the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers. In addition, they should reach an agreement with the Israelis as an upstream country to prevent pollution and conserve the quality of the Jordan's water.