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Ja'far ibn Muhammad b. 699/700 or 702/703, Medina, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] d. 765, Medina Also called JA'FAR AS-SADIQ (ARABIC: "JA'FAR THE TRUSTWORTHY"), sixth imam, or spiritual successor to the Prophet Muhammad, of the Shi'ite branch of Islam and the last to be recognized as imam by all the Shi'ite sects. Theologically, he advocated a limited predestination and proclaimed that Hadith (traditional sayings of the Prophet), if contrary to the Qur'an, should be rejected. Ja'far was the son of Muhammad al-Baqir, the fifth imam, and great-grandson of the fourth caliph, 'Ali, who is considered to have been the first imam and founder of Shi'ism. On his mother's side, Ja'far was descended from the first caliph, Abu Bakr, whom Shi'ites usually consider a usurper. This may explain why he would never tolerate criticism of the first two caliphs. There is some doubt whether the Shi'ite conception of an infallible religious leader, or imam, was really formulated before the 10th century, except possibly in some sort of "underground movement." But the Shi'ites certainly felt that the political leadership of Islam exercised by the caliph should belong to the direct descendants of 'Ali. Moreover, this political leadership was not clearly separated from religious leadership, and, to the end of the Umayyad regime, the caliphs sometimes preached in the mosque, using the sermon to reinforce their authority. Consequently, after his father's death, sometime between 731 and 743, Ja'far became a possible claimant to the caliphate and a potential danger to the Umayyads. The Umayyad regime was already threatened by other hostile elements, including the Iranians, who resented Arab domination. The spread of Shi'ism throughout Iran from a mixture of religious, racial, and political motives compounded the opposition. The successful revolt of 749-750 that overthrew the Umayyads, however, was under the leadership of the 'Abbasid family, descended from one of the Prophet's uncles; and they, not the family of 'Ali, founded the new ruling dynasty. The new caliphs were, understandably, worried about Ja'far. Al-Mansur (reigned 754-775) wanted him in his new capital, Baghdad, where he could keep an eye on him. Ja'far preferred to stay in Medina and reportedly justified this by quoting a saying he ascribed to the Prophet that, though the man who leaves home to make a career may achieve success, he who remains at home will live longer. After the defeat and death of the 'Alid rebel Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah in 762, however, Ja'far thought it prudent to obey the caliph's summons to Baghdad. After a short stay, however, he convinced al-Mansur that he was no threat and was allowed to return to Medina, where he died. A just assessment of Ja'far is made difficult by later Shi'ite accounts, which depict every imam as a sort of superman. He undoubtedly was both politically astute and intellectually gifted, keeping out of politics and not openly claiming the imamate. He gathered around him learned pupils including Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, founders of two of the four recognized Islamic legal schools, the Hanaiyah and Malikiyah, and Wasil ibn 'Ata', founder of the Mu'tazili school. Equally famous was Jabir ibn Hayyan, the alchemist known in Europe as Geber, who credited Ja'far with many of his scientific ideas and indeed suggested that some of his works are little more than records of Ja'far's teaching or summaries of hundreds of monographs written by him. As to the manuscripts of half a dozen religious works bearing Ja'far's name, scholars generally regard them as spurious. It seems likely that he was a teacher who left writing to others. Various Muslim writers have ascribed three fundamental religious ideas to him. First, he adopted a middle road about the question of predestination, asserting that God decreed some things absolutely but left others to human agency--a compromise that was widely adopted. Second, in the science of Hadith, he proclaimed the principle that what was contrary to the Qur'an (Islamic scripture) should be rejected, whatever other evidence might support it. Third, he described Muhammad's prophetic mission as a ray of light, created before Adam and passed on from Muhammad to his descendants. Shi'ite divisions date from Ja'far's death. His eldest son, Isma'il, predeceased him, but the "Seveners," represented today chiefly by the Isma'ilites (followers of Isma'il)--argued that Isma'il merely disappeared and would reappear one day. Three other sons also claimed the imamate; of these, Musa al-Kazim gained widest recognition. Shi'ite sects not recognizing Isma'il are mostly known as "Twelvers"; they trace the succession from Ja'far to the 12th imam, who disappeared and is expected to return at the Last Judgment. |
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Jabir Ibn Hayyan
Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Musa b. c. 721,, Tus, Iran
Alchemist known as the "father of Arab chemistry." Shortly after Jabir was born, his father was beheaded for the part he played in a plot by the 'Abbasids to depose the Umayyad dynasty. Jabir was sent to Arabia, where he became a member of the Shi'ite sect. Apparently, he studied most branches of learning, including medicine. After the 'Abbasids defeated the Umayyads, Jabir became a court physician to the 'Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid. Jabir was a close friend of the sixth Shi'ite imam, Ja'far ibn Muhammad, whom he gave credit for many of his scientific ideas. More than 2,000 works are attributed to Jabir. The Muslim Isma'iliyah sect published a large body of alchemical and mystical works under his name. In the 14th century a Spanish alchemist placed the name Geber (the Latinized form of Jabir) on his own manuscripts, possibly to attribute them to Jabir and thus gain greater authority. From Jabir's own works, there is no evidence of any achievements that might justify the extraordinary esteem in which he was held by later alchemists. His reputation appears to rest mainly on the appeal of his metaphysical philosophy of nature and perhaps his unique style, emphasis, and development of the theory of matter. Jabir revised the ancient Greek belief that everything is composed of fire, earth, water, and air. He believed that these four elements combined to form mercury and sulfur and that all metals are formed from these two substances when combined in various proportions. Jabir was aware that when mercury and sulfur are combined, the red compound cinnabar (mercuric sulfide) is produced; but he felt that, if the ideal proportion could be found, gold would be the product. This theory was widely adopted; altered and spread, it had a great influence on early chemistry and eventually led to the belief in phlogiston. |
Taken from ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
